{"id":2916,"date":"2026-04-19T14:12:05","date_gmt":"2026-04-19T14:12:05","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/?p=2916"},"modified":"2026-04-19T14:13:01","modified_gmt":"2026-04-19T14:13:01","slug":"the-crisis-of-modern-subjectivity-rethinking-muhammad-iqbal-and-the-islamic-tradition","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/?p=2916","title":{"rendered":"The Crisis of Modern Subjectivity: Rethinking Muhammad Iqbal and the Islamic Tradition"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-post\" data-elementor-id=\"2916\" class=\"elementor elementor-2916\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-6e80296a elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"6e80296a\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column 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.elementor-heading-title.elementor-size-xl{font-size:39px}.elementor-widget-heading .elementor-heading-title.elementor-size-xxl{font-size:59px}<\/style><h1 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">The Crisis of Modern Subjectivity: Rethinking Muhammad Iqbal and the Islamic Tradition<\/h1>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-e712b59 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"e712b59\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-621b9945\" data-id=\"621b9945\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap 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id=\"Layer_2\" data-name=\"Layer 2\" viewBox=\"0 0 29.01 29.01\"><g id=\"Layer_1-2\" data-name=\"Layer 1\"><path d=\"M10.15,0V2.9h8.7V0h2.9V2.9h5.8c.8,0,1.45,.65,1.45,1.45V27.56c0,.8-.65,1.45-1.45,1.45H1.45c-.8,0-1.45-.65-1.45-1.45V4.35c0-.8,.65-1.45,1.45-1.45H7.25V0h2.9Zm15.96,14.5H2.9v11.6H26.11V14.5Zm-13.05,2.9v5.8H5.8v-5.8h7.25ZM7.25,5.8H2.9v5.8H26.11V5.8h-4.35v2.9h-2.9v-2.9H10.15v2.9h-2.9v-2.9Z\"><\/path><\/g><\/svg>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-icon-list-text elementor-post-info__item elementor-post-info__item--type-date\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tApril 19, 2026\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t\t\t<li class=\"elementor-icon-list-item elementor-repeater-item-a3539ae elementor-inline-item\" itemprop=\"author\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/?author=17\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-icon-list-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<svg xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" id=\"Layer_2\" data-name=\"Layer 2\" viewBox=\"0 0 22.97 30.15\"><g id=\"Layer_1-2\" data-name=\"Layer 1\"><path d=\"M0,30.15c0-6.34,5.14-11.49,11.49-11.49s11.49,5.14,11.49,11.49h-2.87c0-4.76-3.86-8.61-8.61-8.61S2.87,25.39,2.87,30.15H0Zm11.49-12.92c-4.76,0-8.61-3.86-8.61-8.61S6.73,0,11.49,0s8.61,3.86,8.61,8.61-3.86,8.61-8.61,8.61Zm0-2.87c3.17,0,5.74-2.57,5.74-5.74s-2.57-5.74-5.74-5.74-5.74,2.57-5.74,5.74,2.57,5.74,5.74,5.74Z\"><\/path><\/g><\/svg>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-icon-list-text elementor-post-info__item elementor-post-info__item--type-author\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAriz Usmani\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t\t\t<\/ul>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-73feac8 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con\" data-id=\"73feac8\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;content_width&quot;:&quot;boxed&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1d6c5a2 e-con-full e-flex e-con\" data-id=\"1d6c5a2\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;,&quot;content_width&quot;:&quot;full&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5666a67 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"5666a67\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<p class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Summary<\/p>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-770b167 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"770b167\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<style>\/*! elementor - v3.14.0 - 26-06-2023 *\/\n.elementor-widget-text-editor.elementor-drop-cap-view-stacked .elementor-drop-cap{background-color:#69727d;color:#fff}.elementor-widget-text-editor.elementor-drop-cap-view-framed .elementor-drop-cap{color:#69727d;border:3px solid;background-color:transparent}.elementor-widget-text-editor:not(.elementor-drop-cap-view-default) .elementor-drop-cap{margin-top:8px}.elementor-widget-text-editor:not(.elementor-drop-cap-view-default) .elementor-drop-cap-letter{width:1em;height:1em}.elementor-widget-text-editor .elementor-drop-cap{float:left;text-align:center;line-height:1;font-size:50px}.elementor-widget-text-editor .elementor-drop-cap-letter{display:inline-block}<\/style>\t\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span data-path-to-node=\"4,1\"><span class=\"citation-70\">Muhammad U. Faruque&#8217;s paper critically examines Muhammad Iqbal&#8217;s intellectual contributions, focusing specifically on his concept of the self (<\/span><i data-path-to-node=\"4,1\" data-index-in-node=\"143\"><span class=\"citation-70\">khudi<\/span><\/i><span class=\"citation-70\">) and his interpretations of Sufism<\/span><\/span><span data-path-to-node=\"4,3\">. <\/span><span data-path-to-node=\"4,5\"><span class=\"citation-69\">The author argues that Iqbal&#8217;s attempt to synthesize Eastern and Western traditions is undermined by a Eurocentric perspective, which distorts the historical development of key Islamic doctrines<\/span><\/span><span data-path-to-node=\"4,7\">. <\/span><span data-path-to-node=\"4,9\"><span class=\"citation-68\">Faruque contends that Iqbal oversimplifies complex Sufi concepts, such as <\/span><i data-path-to-node=\"4,9\" data-index-in-node=\"74\"><span class=\"citation-68\">fan\u0101<\/span><\/i><span class=\"citation-68\"> (annihilation of the self), and frequently misreads foundational texts by traditional scholars like al-J\u012bl\u012b and Shabistar\u012b<\/span><\/span><span data-path-to-node=\"4,11\">. <\/span><span data-path-to-node=\"4,13\"><span class=\"citation-67\">Furthermore, the text highlights that Iqbal superficially connects Islamic thought with modern science\u2014such as theories by Darwin and Einstein\u2014without a rigorous methodological foundation<\/span><\/span><span data-path-to-node=\"4,15\">. <\/span><span data-path-to-node=\"4,17\"><span class=\"citation-66\">Ultimately, the paper concludes that Iqbal&#8217;s framework struggles to faithfully justify Islamic knowledge on its own terms<\/span><\/span><span data-path-to-node=\"4,19\">.<\/span><\/p><p style=\"text-align: right;\">\u00a0<span style=\"background-color: #aa8664; font-family: 'Nanum Gothic Coding', sans-serif; font-size: 12px; color: white;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u24d8 This summary is generated by Ai\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-79ca75c9 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"79ca75c9\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-43557d5a\" data-id=\"43557d5a\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0d0d32b elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"0d0d32b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>\n  The paper \u2018<em>The Crisis of Modern Subjectivity: Rethinking Muhammad Iqbal and the Islamic Tradition<\/em>\u2019 by Muhammad U. Faruque examines the major contributions of Muhammad Iqbal, focusing on his concept of the self (<em>khudi<\/em>) and his interpretation of Sufism, which he regarded as central to his engagement with the Islamic intellectual tradition and to his effort to reinterpret Islamic thought in relation to modern science. Developing a critical inquiry on epistemeological relativity, Faruque stations Iqbal\u2019s ideas alongside earlier figures of the Islamic tradition and the subsequent scholarship that has examined his philosophical and literary contributions. Through this comparative approach, the paper highlights the formative influence of Western epistemology on Iqbal\u2019s attempt to synthesize the intellectual traditions of the East and the West. It ultimately argues that the Eurocentric orientation of Iqbal\u2019s thought undermines his project of intellectual revival by misrepresenting the historical development of key doctrines within the Islamic intellectual tradition.\n<\/p>\n<p>\n  Muhammad Allama Iqbal, a pioneer of Muslim intellect who remains a personality of such magnitude whose effect has managed to create a scholarship of its own kind. The creation of a dedicated scholarship around Iqbal has cemented his legacy on two polemical ends, as the paper argues. At one end, there is a defensive and apologetic reception of Iqbal\u2019s imagination and its philosophical impact on a national scale, which leads to the dismissal of any critical scholarship aimed at scrutinizing his existing works. And the other end, Iqbal\u2019s profound novelty and literary greatness are portrayed as unsurpassable in existence. \n<\/p>\n<p>\n  In a close reading of the first section, this paper examines Muhammad Iqbal\u2019s explication of his theory of the self\u2014often criticised for adopting a tone similar to Friedrich Nietzsche\u2019s concept of the <em>\u00dcbermensch<\/em>. It explores the fragments of selfhood embedded in Sufi practices and how these have been misconstrued in later scholarship on Iqbal. A notable divergence in the relationship between <em>khudi<\/em> and <em>ins\u0101n-e-k\u0101mil<\/em>, as understood by earlier Islamic scholars, reveals a perspective that contrasts with those of earlier Muslim predecessors. In the absence of valid Sufi accounts supporting the realisation of a superior being, contemporary scholars such as Ebrahim Moosa have interpreted Iqbal\u2019s concept of <em>khudi<\/em> as embodying a \u201csuperhuman\u201d and Moreover, the idea of Muhammad Iqbal as a philosophical figure grants leverage to his contributions to the intellectual tradition. However, from a critical standpoint, the author contends regarding Iqbal\u2019s own intellectual training required to engage with earlier Islamic intellectual traditions, including philosophy (<em>falsafa<\/em>), theology (<em>kal\u0101m<\/em>), and philosophical mysticism (<em>\u02bfirf\u0101n<\/em>). In his view, the Islamic intellectual tradition fell short  to procure intellectual acumen producing only few thinkers similar to the status of the Hindu philosophical thought. This characterisation of intellectual history, as done by Iqbal carries on a reductionist approach which portrayed the Islamic intellectual environment as unconducive for the growth of scientific and philosophical pursuits. With such a perception, it becomes problematic for Islamic knowledge to be faithfully justified on its own terms within Iqbal\u2019s work.\n<\/p>\n<p>\n  From a philosophical perspective, the paper argues that Muhammad Iqbal\u2019s understanding of Sufism contains several instances of oversimplification and biased interpretation. This is exemplified in his reading of Abd al-Karim al-Jili\u2019s fundamental treatise <em>Al-Ins\u0101n al-K\u0101mil f\u012b Ma\u02bfrifat al-Aw\u0101khir wa al-Aw\u0101\u02beil<\/em> (<em>The Perfect Human Concerning Knowledge of the End and the Beginning<\/em>). In engaging with this work, Iqbal appears to err in his conceptualisation of <em>dh\u0101t<\/em> (substance), explaining <em>Mutlaq al-Dh\u0101t<\/em> (the Divine Essence) as unknowable to human perception. Iqbal\u2019s position on the Divine Essence oversimplifies al-J\u012bl\u012b\u2019s view, even though he cites the latter as the basis for his own concept of the perfect human. In attempting to further extrapolate the idea of the perfect being from al-J\u012bl\u012b\u2019s works, Iqbal introduces elements of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel\u2019s philosophy, particularly the notion of \u201cpure thought,\u201d along with Christian theological concepts such as the term \u201cGod-man.\u201d At the same time, he mistranslates several key terms\u2014for instance, <em>tajall\u012b<\/em>, which he renders as \u201cillumination,\u201d but which is more accurately translated as \u201cmanifestation\u201d or \u201cself-disclosure.\u201d This lapse in reading and interpretation of al-J\u012bl\u012b creates a significant distortion of the historical tradition of Sufism and its associated figures as represented through Iqbal\u2019s philosophy.\n<\/p>\n<p>\n  Adding to the debate on the characteristics of Sufism, Iqbal continues to adopt a Eurocentric perspective in \u201cBedil in the Light of Bergson\u201d (1916), where he alleges Persian Sufism for subsuming the spirit of great intellectual figures in Islamic history. He also identifies pantheistic tendencies within Sufism to be a major corrosive force, offering a simplistic critique of its practices rather than engaging with the appropriate scholarly literature on the subject. Furthermore, the Sufi concept of fana, which is understood as \u2018self-negation,\u2019 contrasts sharply with Iqbal\u2019s perception of fana which he explains as \u2018inactivity\u2019. In his commentary on Abd al-Q\u0101dir B\u012bdil\u2019s work on Sufi metaphysics, Iqbal falls short of grasping B\u012bdil\u2019s allusion to Ibn \u02bfArab\u012b\u2019s concept of divine imagination, which transcends human imagination. For Iqbal, the argument containing allegory presented by B\u012bdil remains incapable of explaining the relationship between humans and knowledge, leading to a misinterpretation of the entire proposition as originally made by B\u012bdil . \n<\/p>\n<p>\n  Apart from philosophy and metaphysics, the author further presents substantial evidence of oversights made by Muhammad Iqbal in the realm of natural sciences. In his interpretation, Iqbal elucidates the theory of evolution as proposed by Ibn Miskawayh, combining it with his own understanding of evolutionary theory. The writings of Ibn Miskawayh provide insight into the progression of attributes from mineral to vegetal, animal, and ultimately human life. Meanwhile, Iqbal, employing logic similar to that of Charles Darwin\u2019s evolutionary theory, projects Ibn Miskawayh\u2019s treatise to articulate his own understanding of barbarism evolving into civilization through physiological and spiritual changes\u2014an idea that is absent in the original text. This blending of traditional theory with modern scientific explanations reveals Iqbal\u2019s attempt to form a superficial connection between two fundamentally different theories. \n<\/p>\n<p>\n  Continuing his intellectual exploration, Muhammad Iqbal presents a theoretical dialogue between Albert Einstein\u2019s Theory of Relativity and his own concept of the self, which he describes as non-spatial, non-temporal, and absolute, yet unaffected by external influences. For the author, the implications that Iqbal draws echo his interpretation of the theory of relativity, which he employs to elaborate on the impact of motion and space on human psychology, highlighting the interrelation between the observer and reality. However, his argument reveals a notable lack of rigorous mathematical foundation in theoretical physics, as Iqbal relies instead on mystical interpretations of the theory of relativity offered by prominent traditional Muslim intellectuals.\n<\/p>\n<p>\n  In response to the epistemic domination resulting from colonial activities, Muhammad Iqbal vehemently challenges the colonial episteme by strategically positioning the Islamic intellectual tradition and highlighting its unique coherence in contrast to it. However, the paper seeks to demonstrate that Iqbal\u2019s extensive undertaking lacks a coherent methodological approach, portraying the achievements of the Islamic intellectual tradition merely as precursors to modern science rather than as significant accomplishments in their own right. Iqbal attributes a hedonistic character to the progress of Western knowledge while simultaneously acknowledging the intellectual prowess he gained through figures such as Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Nietzsche, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and William Wordsworth.\n<\/p>\n<p>\n  As the paper progresses, the second section addresses Iqbal\u2019s perspective on selfhood within the Islamic philosophical and theological tradition. Rejecting the dualistic interpretation of the Cartesian principle, Iqbal advocates for the unity of mind and body on the ground of permanence between the former and the latter element, belonging to the same framework of operation which can not be separated from each other. The paper develops the claim that building on this rejection, Iqbal situates the same position within the Islamic philosophical and theological tradition concerning selfhood. By examining the reasons behind the oversight of Iqbal\u2019s assessment, it becomes clear how he simplifies the multidimensional debates surrounding selfhood in the Islamic context: specifically, the effort to find a balance between the material and immaterial conception of the self.\n<\/p>\n<p>\n  In his work <em>Gulshan-i Raz-i Jadid<\/em> (<em>The New Rose Garden of Secrets<\/em>), which Muhammad Iqbal presents as an extension of <em>Gulshan-i Raz<\/em> (<em>The Rose Garden of Mysteries<\/em>) by Mahmud Shabistari, the inquiry gravitates around the notion of <em>fan\u0101<\/em>\u2014the annihilation of the self. Shabistar\u012b opens his argument through the question of self-realisation, or the problem of I-ness (\u201cWho am I?\u201d), accompanied by a call to \u201ctravel within yourself.\u201d Iqbal\u2019s interpretation, however, locates the meaning of this inquiry in the accumulation of knowledge by the human individual\u2014the \u201cI\u201d in his philosophy\u2014along with a zeal to uncover the secrets of the universe through scientific knowledge. For Shabistar\u012b, by contrast, the dictum \u201ctravel within yourself\u201d signifies a commitment to a spiritual journey that transcends the spatio-temporal realm, requiring the renunciation of corporeal existence in order to achieve union with the Absolute Divine, who is referred to as the \u201cI\u201d in the original text.\n<\/p>\n<p>\n  Evidently, the author underscores the claim that Iqbal&#8217;s engagement with the notion of the \u201cI\u201d concerns human immortality, a view that theoretically diverges from Shabistar\u012b\u2019s original conception. In continuing his argument, the author contends that Iqbal reduces the concept of <em>fan\u0101<\/em> by interpreting it merely as a \u201closs of individuality\u201d or a \u201cnegation of selfhood,\u201d in contrast to the more nuanced descriptions offered by prominent Sufi thinkers such as Shah Waliullah Dehlawi. It is important to note that the Sufi conception of <em>fan\u0101<\/em> and <em>baq\u0101<\/em> involves the removal of the veil between God and the human being; the conventional self conceals the divine self. Iqbal, however, interprets this process differently\u2014not as the dissolution of illusory consciousness but as an act of \u201cself-affirmation,\u201d a conclusion he also draws from the famous utterance of Mansur al-Hallaj, \u201cI am the Real\u201d (<em>ana al-\u1e25aqq<\/em>). Within Iqbal\u2019s argument, there appears to be a failure to acknowledge the distinction between self-loss\u2014the process of relinquishing one\u2019s attributes in approaching God\u2014and <em>fan\u0101<\/em>, which represents the culmination of that process. By treating <em>fan\u0101<\/em> in isolation, Iqbal overlooks its complementary counterpart, <em>baq\u0101<\/em>, understood in Sufi thought as the divine ordinance that grants subsistence to the annihilated self of the individual.\n<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3e6dac0 elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"3e6dac0\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<style>\/*! elementor - v3.14.0 - 26-06-2023 *\/\n.elementor-widget-divider{--divider-border-style:none;--divider-border-width:1px;--divider-color:#0c0d0e;--divider-icon-size:20px;--divider-element-spacing:10px;--divider-pattern-height:24px;--divider-pattern-size:20px;--divider-pattern-url:none;--divider-pattern-repeat:repeat-x}.elementor-widget-divider .elementor-divider{display:flex}.elementor-widget-divider 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data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b3f410b heading-with-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"b3f410b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Related Tags<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-86b8944 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"86b8944\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-c23289a\" data-id=\"c23289a\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-54572b8 elementor-widget elementor-widget-shortcode\" data-id=\"54572b8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"shortcode.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-shortcode\"><div class=\"posts-tags\"><a href=\"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/?tag=epistemology\" rel=\"tag\">Epistemology<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/?tag=eurocentrism\" rel=\"tag\">Eurocentrism<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/?tag=fana\" rel=\"tag\">Fana<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/?tag=islamic-tradition\" rel=\"tag\">Islamic Tradition<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/?tag=khudi\" rel=\"tag\">Khudi<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/?tag=modern-science\" rel=\"tag\">Modern Science<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/?tag=muhammad-iqbal\" rel=\"tag\">Muhammad Iqbal<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/?tag=muhammad-u-faruque\" rel=\"tag\">Muhammad U. Faruque<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/?tag=sufism\" rel=\"tag\">Sufism<\/a><\/div><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-2382b2a elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"2382b2a\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-de704ea\" data-id=\"de704ea\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b3f3f49 heading-with-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"b3f3f49\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Explore more articles<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Summary Muhammad U. Faruque&#8217;s paper critically examines Muhammad Iqbal&#8217;s intellectual contributions, focusing specifically on his concept of the self (khudi) and his interpretations of Sufism. The author argues that Iqbal&#8217;s attempt to synthesize Eastern and Western traditions is undermined by a Eurocentric perspective, which distorts the historical development of key Islamic doctrines. Faruque contends that [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":17,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[140,139,142,136,138,141,135,143,137],"class_list":["post-2916","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-blog","tag-epistemology","tag-eurocentrism","tag-fana","tag-islamic-tradition","tag-khudi","tag-modern-science","tag-muhammad-iqbal","tag-muhammad-u-faruque","tag-sufism"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2916","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/17"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=2916"}],"version-history":[{"count":10,"href":"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2916\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2927,"href":"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2916\/revisions\/2927"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=2916"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=2916"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/projectmishkat.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=2916"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}